



3.4 Spinor field theory
...anything that comes back to itself with a minus sign after a
2
So far, we have focused on scalar fields, which live in the
trivial representation of the Lorentz group and correspond to
spin-
3.4.1 The Dirac equation
Like the Klein-Gordon equation, the Dirac equation was also an attempt at a relativistic version of the Schrödinger equation. Before the development of QFT, the quantized KG equation was thought to produce negative probabilities due to its second derivative in time.12 Dirac thus sought a relativistic first-order differential equation in space and time.
Legend has it he was staring into a fire in Cambridge when he came up with an equation of the form
| (3.101) |
where
The key is that
| (3.102) |
if (and only if)
| (3.103) |
where
| (3.104) |
where
| (3.105) |
This equation is considered one of the most significant breakthroughs in theoretical physics, “on par with the works of Newton, Maxwell, and Einstein before him” [36]. The insights that followed, as we will outline in this section, provided a theoretical basis for fermion spin, implied the existence of antiparticles, and overall were foundational to the development of the SM.14
3.4.2 Spinors
Before discussing solutions and quantization of the Dirac equation, let us examine what
kind of object
| (3.106) |
satisfies the Lorentz algebra (Eq. 2.32). This means
| (3.107) |
where
It can be shown15
that the Dirac equation is only Lorentz covariant if the components of
| (3.108) |
It is important to note here that
| (3.109) |
where both
Dirac and Weyl spinors
What is this representation? Let’s look at the rotation and boost generators individually:
| (3.110) |
Comparing this with Eqs. 2.28 and 2.29, we see that the top left and bottom
right blocks are exactly the left- and right-handed Weyl spinor irreps of
the generators. The handedness of a spinor is called its chirality, and its
physical significance will be discussed in a moment. Thus, we identify
This also means that, in this basis of the gamma matrices (called the Weyl, or chiral, basis),
the Dirac spinor
| (3.111) |
which transform under their respective representations. The two components can be isolated if we consider a fifth gamma matrix:
| (3.112) |
| (3.113) |
which satisfy the projection property
| (3.114) |
Note that while the specific form depends on the basis, the definitions in Eq. 3.113 are basis-independent and can be considered to define chirality.
Chirality
The two Weyl spinor representations are related by a complex conjugation, meaning
The Dirac equation can be rewritten in the Weyl basis
as two coupled equations of the Weyl spinors. Let us define
| (3.115) |
Hence, we see the mass term couples the left- and right-handed components. This
is why all massive fermions must exist in pairs of particles and antiparticles. An
important special case, however, is for a neutral Majorana fermion, where
For
| (3.116) |
In Fourier space, these are:
| (3.117) |
where we used
Theories not symmetric under exchange of left- and right-handed components
are called chiral, and symmetric theories vector. QED and QCD are both
vector theories, but weak interactions are, surprisingly, chiral. This
necessarily means it violates parity and charge conjugation symmetries
(
3.4.3 The Dirac Lagrangian
Recall that to quantize the scalar theory, we first needed the Lagrangian and the classical solutions of the K-G equation, to then obtain Hamiltonian and canonical fields and Poisson brackets before finally promoting them to quantum commutatation relations. We will proceed in similar (though condensed) fashion for the spinor theory, and first derive the Lagrangian corresponding to the Dirac equation.
Since we are no longer dealing with trivial representation of the
Lorentz group, we have to be more careful with the types of terms we
put into the Lagrangian; it must be composed of good Lorentz-invariant
objects. A first guess at a Lorentz scalar formed of spinors may be
| (3.118) |
However, recall from Chapter 2.3 that (finite-dimensional) representations of Lorentz
transformations are not unitary. (We can see this as well from the fact that the generators of
Instead, with a bit of matrix algebra17, one can show that
| (3.119) |
and hence
| (3.120) |
is a Lorentz scalar. Thus, we define
Similarly, one can show that
| (3.121) |
One can check that the EL equations reproduce the Dirac equation for
The U(1) conserved current
As with the complex scalar field, observe that the Dirac Lagrangian is invariant under
global
| (3.122) |
As for the complex scalar field, these represent the electromagnetic
3.4.4 Quantizing the Dirac field
Solutions to the Dirac equation
Before quantizing, we first need the classical solutions to the Dirac equation. Multiplying both
sides of it by
| (3.123) |
which means each component of
| (3.124) |
where
One can check using Fourier space, as we did for the Weyl equations, that
| (3.125) |
are general solutions to the Dirac equation, where
For example, in the rest frame
| (3.126) |
More generally, we can always orient a particle’s 3-momentum along the
| (3.127) |
Quantization
Now that we have a sensible Lagrangian and the classical solutions to
the Dirac equation, the remaining steps to quantization follow closely
that for our complex scalar field in Section 3.2.4, but with two notable
differences. The first is that we now must sum over the two spin components of
| (3.128) |
As before, we have positive and negative frequency solutions, with the
| (3.129) |
By convention, we take
Through his equation, Dirac was the first to predict the existence of antimatter in 1930 [38] (although he initially thought the electron’s antiparticle was the proton). This prediction was soon confirmed by the discovery of a particle with the same mass as the electron but opposite charge by Carl Anderson in a bubble chamber in 1932 [39]. Both were awarded the Nobel prize.
The spin-statistics connection
The second, extremely important difference from scalar quantization is that, because spinors
are spin-
| (3.130) |
which also means the creation and annihilation operators satisfy:
| (3.131) |
Thus, unlike bosons, exchanging two particles yields a minus sign:
3.4.5 Interactions and Feynman rules
Having quantized the free Dirac field, we now discuss interactions, again focusing on small (and renormalizable) perturbations to the free theory. We start by presenting the propagators for the Dirac field and then extending our scalar Yukawa theory from Section 3.3 to spinor “nucleons”.
Propagators
We define the propagator for the Dirac field the same as for scalar fields in Section 3.2.5:
| (3.132) |
where
| (3.133) |
so that we end up with, in momentum space, the Feynman propagator:
| (3.134) |
Note that we have now suppressed the spinor indices;
| (3.135) |
External lines
For scalars, external line terms such as
| (3.136) |
(The
| (3.137) |
We can see looking at the form of the quantized fields (Eq. 3.128), and which terms will
contribute something non-zero, that incoming (outgoing) external fermions will be associated
with a
Yukawa theory reloaded
We now revisit Yukawa theory, the simplest possible theory of interactions
for spinors. The Lagrangian is the same as in Eq. 3.69, but now with
| (3.138) |
Note that through dimensional analysis, since
We again refer to
Definition 3.3. The Feynman rules in momentum space for spinor Yukawa theory are:
- 1.
- Vertices:
- 2.
- Internal lines (propagators)
Mesons: Nucleons:
- 3.
- External lines (on-shell particles)
Incoming mesons: Outgoing mesons: Incoming nucleons: Outgoing nucleons: Incoming antinucleons: Outgoing antinucleons: - 4.
- Impose momentum conservation at each vertex.
- 5.
- Integrate over the momentum
flowing through each loop. - 6.
- Figure out the sign based on statistics.
Meson decay and the Higgs decay width
The matrix element for meson decay into a fermion-antifermion pair with spin and
momentum
| (3.139) |
We can calculate the decay rate as in Section 3.3.4, except now we have to sum over the spins of the fermions:
| (3.140) |
In the COM frame, we can choose
| (3.141) |
Since this is independent of the final state kinematics, the integral of
| (3.142) |
As we hinted at in Section 3.3.4, this is in fact the decay width of the Higgs
boson to fermions at tree level, if we plug in the Higgs Yukawa coupling constant
One can similarly update our nucleon scattering amplitudes from Section 3.3.3,
which simply gain some inner products between the incoming and outgoing
spin states (see e.g. Tong QFT [3] Chapter 5.7). Notably, however, the
3.4.6 CPT Symmetries
In this section, we discuss three important discrete symmetries in QFT.
As discussed in Chapter 2.3, the full Lorentz group includes the parity
| (3.143) |
However, their forms in other representations, such as spinors, are not as straightforward.
Observe also that all our complex Lagrangians so far
have been invariant under some form of complex conjugation
All local, relativistic QFTs are necessarily invariant under the combined
Such symmetries are crucial handles for understanding QFTs, particularly in
the case of the weak and strong interactions for which we have otherwise little
classical intuition. By studying them, we often glean important insights into the
theory, such as why certain processes are forbidden: for example, we now understand
that the pion cannot decay into three photons because this would violate the
- and
-violation
Historically, it was thought that parity individually is a universal symmetry of
nature. Indeed, this was verified experimentally for electromagnetism and the
strong interaction, but, surprisingly, in 1956 an experiment measuring
the isotropy of the beta decay of cobalt-60 to nickel-60 by Chien-Shiung
Wu showed that the weak interaction in fact violates parity- (and
It was then proposed by Lev Landau [44] and others that perhaps the combined
Interestingly,
Scalar fields
We see from our complex scalar Lagrangian in Eq. 3.26 that it can only be invariant
under
| (3.144) |
The time-reversal operation is a bit subtle, as it must be anti-unitary. We will not discuss it much further, although its implications can be fun to think about.
Nomenclature Whether a field transforms with a
Vector fields
Though we introduce vector fields in detail in the next section, their transformation properties are analogous to scalars and simple enough to describe here:
| (3.145) |
where
Spinors: parity
Spinors live in a more complicated representation of the Lorentz group, so it takes more work to derive their transformations. On the other hand, this also means their properties and the physical consequences are more interesting.
If
| (3.146) |
where
| (3.147) |
Again, the sign in the transformation indicates the intrinsic parity of the field.
Looking at the form of
| (3.148) |
Chirality being inverted makes sense given its (loose) connection to helicity, which
is flipped under parity. Similarly, remembering from Section 3.4.4 that
particle and anti-particle solutions to the Dirac equation have the form
We can also check that the Lorentz scalars and vectors we constructed,
| (3.149) |
However, we can also construct pseudoscalars and pseudovectors by throwing in a
| (3.150) |
We thus see that this will pick up an overall minus sign under
Spinors: charge conjugation and
Under charge conjugation,
| (3.151) |
In the Weyl basis, this means
| (3.152) |
where as always the sign in the transformation indicates the intrinsic
| (3.153) |
Combining parity and charge conjugation gives us, in the Weyl basis:
| (3.154) |
or, in terms of the Weyl spinors:
| (3.155) |
The combination thus transforms fermions into their opposite-chirality
antifermions, and vice versa. Often, this transformation is considered
to define the relation between particles and antiparticles, and is a
better symmetry of the weak interaction (and, hence, the SM) than
Spinors: time reversal and CPT
The time reversal operation is more subtle, as it is anti-unitary.
We will forego a detailed discussion of these subtleties (see e.g.
Schwartz [16] Chapter 11.6), and note that the time reversal operator
| (3.156) |
It flips both the spin and momenta of the fermions, and is
violated as well by the weak interaction (as it must be to ensure
Finally, we can combine all these operations to obtain the
| (3.157) |
This transforms a particle into an antiparticle reversed in space and time.
One interesting way of testing
12We now understand that the KG equation describes perfectly good scalar quantum fields, where the field-theoretic analog of the probability density is in fact the conserved charge of Eq. 3.57, which is allowed to be negative.
13Or even two- or three-dimensional.
14These insights were so unexpected that Dirac thought “his equation was more intelligent than its author” [37].
15See e.g. Ref. [12] Lecture 14.
16
17See e.g. Schwartz [16] Chapter 10.3
18For more detailed discussion, see e.g. Peskin and Schroeder [10] Chapter 3.5 and Schwartz [16] Chapter 12.
19The “
20One way to convince yourself of this is to check that all possible Lorentz scalar terms in the Lagrangian
are invariant under
21And also somewhat by the requirement of anomaly cancellation; see e.g. Tong SM [5] Chapter 4.
22The difference is a consequence of an ABJ anomaly for the